Hyphenation: From H to En-Dash
Prominent ad in our weekly alternative newspaper: 60 Minute Erections!
Back in the day, I would not have appreciated one-minute erections, even if there were 60 of them. That's downright premature!
I am inclined to think that perhaps what the writer of this ad meant to say was this: 60-Minute Erections!
Now that gets your attention.
What a difference a line makes.
Maybe I should say a mark instead. Wouldn't want to give the wrong impression, like the horribly disruptive idea of 60 one-minute erections, apparently striking randomly throughout some unknown span of acutely embarrassing time.
Okay, time to get serious. Sort of. But the truth is that I really don't understand the dismissive attitude people nurse concerning hyphens. They simply leave them out. As though they don't matter.
People who think that the only good hyphen is a gone hyphen
might feel less antipathy toward them if they instead thought of them geographically.
Adopting this larger view, in the geography of linguistics, hyphens
are of course absent between any two separate and unrelated words (health,
care); are once again absent when two earstwhile separate words become
one word (healthcare); and finally enjoy their
heyday in the state between no relation and one-wordedness (health-care).
As the language evolves, two-word combinations always seen in each others'
company are engaged with a hyphen (ill-kempt)
and, if it all works out, lose it in marriage (which, as we all know, doesn't
always come to pass—we don't have illkempt,
at least not yet).
Much like the theory of continental drift, wouldn't you say?
As you perhaps suspect by now, hyphens connect words, prefixes, and
suffixes, sometimes temporarily and sometimes permanently.
This first section
deals with hyphenation non-exceptions, if you will—a description
of the Common Hyphen, the everyday Hyphen on the Street.
Other sections cover more amorphous hyphenation subjects—concepts
that refuse to fit neatly into subtitles but that I nevertheless attempt
manfully to force them into. These include (and currently, anyway, are limited to):
Meet
the Hyphens
Rules, in general
Compound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions With no further
ado, then . . .
Rules and regs
Hyphens live (and a good life it is) between word combinations (usually
two-word combinations, example intended) that,
together, modify a following word: the grey-striped kitten
This is important, so I'll say it again. Hyphens
reside in three-word combinations in which the
first word modifies the second
word, which modifies a noun, as in:
The bullet-riddled body of the pack rat began
to bloat in the sun.
As you will see, not all
three-word combinations get hyphens, but suffice it right now to say that a
heck of a lot of them do.
And when you understand the reason for the hyphen's placement, then you
understand the reasons why they are not always welcome between those first
two words.
We'll get to that exception later.
Meanwhile, back at the hyphen-happy three-word combination ranch, if the
two modifying words follow instead of precede
the modified word, they are not generally hyphenated: the
kitten had grey stripes . . . although, in this case and not to confuse
you, one could consider the two modifying words as a bona fide compound
(and thus hyphenated) word: the
kitten was grey-striped Why? Because that particular pair of words—grey-striped—is
so often seen together that tongues are not even wagging any more. Everybody
knows that something is going on. Donovan Dunn has already been there; it's
old news. They have become a pair in a state of continual if informal engagement,
and one day the twain just may possibly manifest that state of conjugal
bliss, the no-longer-hyphenated conjoined single word, greystriped.
Not yet though—it is just still too early to call.
But with that sentimental example I have digressed.
Back at last to our riveting subject, two-word modifying
constructions occurring before the modified word. These are hyphenated,
and can consist of (and are not limited to but this is long enough already—savor
your luck!) an adverb-adjective combination: a
brindle-colored cow
a well-endowed matron, a noun with an adjective:
upper-end condos but condos
at the upper end
low-rent bodyguards but bodyguards of the low-rent
persuasion—aha, another modified word hence the hyphen!
a noun with an adverb or participle that together, when preceding the modified
word, act as an adjective (what??-read on): decision-making
process but the wrenching (wretched?) process
of decision making,
the least-complex example but the example that
is least complex is certainly not this one, a compound consisting
of an initial number modifying a noun: a
two-lane exit
an 18-factor calculus problem from hell and
see Numbers, below), color
terms modifying a noun: ruby-red lips
bottle-blond hair, two nouns used coordinately
to modify a word: a dog-cat duet but
a duet of dog and cat, and, just to mix things up a bit, two
or more adjectives used coordinately or in conflict whether or not
they precede or follow the lucky word (lucky dog?): we performed
a double-blind study but he felt duty-bound
Don't look now, but that's another compound-word engagement!
Well, would you look at how much we've covered already. Don't pack up yet,
however, for we do have a bit to go yet (eyes off that scroll-bar!—about
as good as the jury instruction to disregard those words). Nobody
ever promised that learning grammar was a rose garden. Or something like
that.
Fancy
a review of Rules, in general?
Compound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions
Hyphen Family
Compound Nouns and Pals
We come now to a great category that includes many fine examplars.
Hyphens occur between two nouns of equal "weight" used as a single compound
word: actor-director
lawyer-comedienne
invalid-playboy (with emphasis on the first,
not the second, syllable). Speaking of compound nouns, hyphenate
those that contain a preposition: tie-in,
stick-up, go-between, hanger-on.
Hyphens occur in compound adjectival phrases:
up-to-date calendar , but which
three words then go on to retain hyphens even when not modifying another
word (the calendar was up-to-date) because—you
guessed it—a linguistic engagement occurred, although the matrimonial
uptodate looks to be far in the future—but then, again, we did get
nevertheless, did
we not?;
in adverb-participle compounds: a
smooth-talking snake-oil salesman; the snake-oil
salesman was smooth talking—although this pair also might
be compounded with a hyphen—smooth-talking; and, of
course, in adjective-noun combinations: with
long-term therapy; or the therapy that was
long-term, in which long-term became a happily engaged hyphenated compound
word, again (remember grey-striped?).
A variation on all of this is something common that trips up its share: The 15-year-old boys played soccer.
The boys were 15 years old.
Why is the first hyphenated but the second not?
Answer. The three words "15-year-old" modify "boys" and form an impromptu compound word; the three words "15 years old" do not modify a word and do not form a compound word.
The geographical theory of linguistics sounds more romantic all the time.
(Sterling example of mixing metaphors there!)
Rules, in generalCompound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions
Hyphen Family
Numbers
Hyphenate compound numbers from 21 to 99 (twenty-one), and compound cardinal
and ordinal numbers when written out, as they are when starting a sentence
(twenty-first, second-best). Hyphenate fractions,
whether used as adjectives (a slim one-fifth
majority) or as compound words (one-fifth
of the quasi politicos).
Still concerning numbers, hyphenate all page spans in references (p.91-102);
in text, use en dashes (—, obtained on
a PC with [cntrl hyphen]).
Rules, in generalCompound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions
Hyphen Family
Now for the sultry and mysterious Pre/Post-ixes
Here I will be referring to pre- and suff-ixes. (Or should that be suffices)? Prefixes, just to keep us on this particular same page, come before a word rootThe root word exists before the appendage of prefixes or suffixes or both—gaze is the root word of stargazer and suffixes come after.
Let's start unambiguously. Always hyphenate compound
words that became compound because of the addition of these prefixes: all-, self-, and
ex-. End of unambiguous, as the jury is still out on vice/vice-,
and how about pseudo-?
And hyphenate compound words formed by virtue of these suffixes: -type,
-elect, and -designate.
Use a hyphen after a prefix when the un-hyphenated
word would have a different or ambiguous meaning (re-create;
de-educate; co-pout [okay, maybe I made some up—but they do
illustrate]).
One sometimes needs a hyphen to prevent such awkward combinations in compound
words as two vowels or three consonants (hull-less;
buff-frog; and of course the similar and inimitable
bull-log), but exceptions exist (cooperate;
micro-oophorectomy). (Avoid me as a "Scrabble" player. On second
thought, maybe you should seek me out . . .)
Hyphenate all prefixes that precede a proper noun or a capitalized or initialized
word (anti-AIDS, proto-Prussian moustache).
Hyphenate most compounds using the word cross,
as in cross-country, cross-gender, and cross-eyed
(but not, and you might want to keep these in your cross-hairs, crossbred,
crosshatched, and cross section).
Finally (for this section, anyway—but we do have a treat coming up!),
when modifying phrases contain both complexity and prefixes
or suffixes (perhaps they should be illegal, but thus far they're not), a dazzling combination
of en-dashes and hyphens will amaze all your friends: non–self-recognizing
ex–self-loathing
a once–zombie-like philistine
Rules, in general
Compound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions
Hyphen Family
Hyphenation Exceptions
At last, as promised—Dessert! A section
about when you need not hyphenate. In fact, about when you'd best
not.
Mainly.
What would rules be without exceptions to exceptions?
Hyphens do not always appear between words that modify another word. For
all you hyphen-haters (not that you would likely be among us at this point
anyway), here is an example of two noun-modifying words that should not
be hyphenated: crude plant extracts Why ever not?
How does this three-word example differ from others you've seen?
Look at it this way. Which word is crude modifying?
Crude is modifying extracts;
it is not modifying plant. It is not
a crude plant, in other words. Crude-plant extracts
come from crude plants (however they may manifest; impolitely, perhaps?).
And crude plant extracts are crude extracts from
plants. Make sense?
Same with viral liver diseases and alcoholic
liver diseases. It is a viral disease and an alcoholic disease; it
is not a viral liver (although under those circumstances it may indeed harbor
its share).
Another way to look at this is to prepare to hyphenate two-word modifiers
when the first word complements, enhances, or contradicts
(as in opposites: a corporate-environmental advocate—certainly
a contradiction there!) the second. Thus, you do not hyphenate two-word
modifiers when the first word modifies the third: chronic
liver disease—the disease is what's chronic, not the liver
You've come so far.
Now, wrap your head around this:
Hyphenate adjectival compounds made with quasi-
(as in quasi-legislative office and quasi-judicial
body), but do not hyphenate noun compounds made with quasi
[note—no hyphen!] (quasi expert
but not Quasimodo, which is the first Sunday after Easter (low Sunday)).
Is all this making you quasi nauseated, or
are you simply having a quasi-nauseated moment?
Here's a Do-Not-Hyphenate Rule for you: Do not hyphenate
standard terms.
That is, when they stand alone.
[Sentence-fragment
alert!]
Which begs the question: How to tell which terms are standard?
Certain word combinations come to be instantly recognizable entities unto
themselves: fast food
integrative medicine
high school
emergency room
natural products
public health
whole food
Behold: Nary a hyphen.
One easy way to think determine whether or not such terms have become "recognizable
entities" is to put an indefinite article in front of them and see if they
remain standing—a high school, an emergency room,
the natural product—they make sense, no?
These you would not hyphenate.
But there's a catch.
It's really not a catch. Two-word combinations modifying nouns are hyphenated.
I'll say it again. Two-word combinations, standard or not, when modifying
a third word, are hyphenated.
This—modifying—is something that they
do often, and, when they do, because the first word modifies
the second word, which modifies the noun, you hyphenate: a
fast-food restaurant
an emergency-room gadfly
the whole-food diet
This is not a big deal, the distinction between standard
and nonstandard terms, unless you happen to
be a medical writer. But, if you wish to, you can think of nonstandard
in terms of what is not usually together as commonly accepted combinations
(a starving-neocon artist [now there's
an oxymoron], for instance, or perhaps a fundamentalist-feminist
bot), and you do hyphenate those.
Have you ever heard of a starving neocon or a fundamentalist feminist? No?
Then they must not be those standard terms, like a high school
or an emergency room, off standing on their own.
Decisions along these lines—when and whither to hyphenate—can
seem distressingly arbitrary. This is why I have departed from some of the
accumulated wisdom to make these rules more consistent.
And there you have it. Everything you ever wanted to know about hyphens,
and certainly more than you could have ever asked for dessert!
Up for more grammar? It does come with examples . . .
You never know, but rumor has it that they could get juicy . . .
Sure you have a headache!
Rules,
in general
Compound words
Pre- and post-ixes
Numbers
Hyphenation exceptions
Hyphen Family